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Dr. Ron McGhee's COGNITIVE ABILITIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR ACHIEVEMENT

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Caveat for use of recommendations

The recommendations listed in this handout are compiled from several different sources (e.g. workshops, articles, books, conversations) including but not limited to Dick Woodcock, Gary Hessler, Nancy Mather, Barb Wendling, Kevin McGrew, Fred Shrank and Ron McGhee. Recommendations are sorted by factors measured by the WJR and WJ III^® Tests of Cognitive ability. They represent theoretical interventions, some of which have been validated through research while others have yet to be verified empirically. The study of aptitude/treatment interaction has taken a giant step forward with the publication of the WJ III^®. For the first time, researchers can be confident that reliable and valid measures of many identified specific cognitive abilities (based upon current CHC Theory) are available, greatly improving the quality of research in this field. No doubt there will be modifications to the handout as new data is received. As with any source of information, recommendations in the handout may not generalize to every student in every setting. The handout is not a substitute for professional judgment.

Ron McGhee

Long-Term Retrieval

1. Provide intensive review, repetition, and over learning at each step.
2. Introduce only as many facts, words, etc., as the student is able to learn in a session.
3. Provide the student with lists, notes, or summaries that will help organization and, subsequently, facilitate recall. Make it a priority that good note taking is occurring.
4. Provide immediate feedback of results. This may be accomplished with small group instruction, programmed learning materials, or a microcomputer.
5. When introducing new information and skills, provide the student with pictures to look at or a way to visualize and form associations regarding what she/he is learning.
6. Ensure teachers understand that the student has a processing deficit in long-term recall and that this will affect several areas of achievement and not just one.
7. Modifications in instruction and assessment can help students with deficits in long-term retrieval.
8. Test skills more frequently; avoid long periods of time between presentation of information and assessment of retention.
9. Avoid fill in the blank or essay questions when possible; if not, allow for open book or open note testing.
10. Utilize multiple choice and/or matching testing formats when possible. Provide key formulas or operations at the top of the test.
11. Provide memory aiding devices at school: spell checkers, calculator, multiplication chart on desk, tape or video recording of lesson, notes, or books.
12. Allow for review of information before presentation of new concepts or taking tests; mini study period.
13. Appreciate the fact that students can demonstrate mastery of important concepts besides taking a standardized skills test.

Auditory Processing

1. There is a clear association between reading achievement and ability to analyze and interpret sounds in words. In categorizing various phonemic awareness tasks, sound blending and oral phonemic segmentation (separately articulating the sounds of a word in the correct sequence) are the most essential and closely associated with early reading success.
2 Specific training in phonemic awareness appears to benefit elementary children.
3 Some students who perform poorly on STM also have trouble with auditory processing. In these cases, many of the recommendations for STM may be appropriate for the student (the most important being give clear, direct instructions for all tasks, limited in length and complexity).
4 Refer to the speech pathologist for a more comprehensive language assessment.
5 If phonological awareness training has been unsuccessful, recommend a nonphonic reading approach.
6. In severe cases, the school will need to excuse the student from foreign language requirement at the secondary level.
7 Provide visual outlines and graphic organizers for tasks involving listening.
8 Do not penalize the student for difficulties in reading, decoding, or spelling; provide separate grades for mechanics and content.
9 Allow extra time for reading, writing, and testing assignments. Reduce distractions (especially auditory ones) to a minimum during these activities.
10 Devise activities that reinforce the student’s ability to discriminate between “real” and “silly” (nonsense) words.
11 For development of spelling skills, dictate short words with regular sound-symbol correspondence for the student to write. Pronounce words slowly so that the student can hear the separate phonemes. Have him/her pronounce each sound as she/he writes the letter or letter combinations.
12 When you speak, face the student, enunciate clearly, and have the student watch your mouth as the sounds are made. Pause between clauses or ideas. In the most extreme of cases, fit the student with an auditory trainer so that teacher’s voice is amplified; this makes it easier for the student to focus on verbalizations rather than being distracted by background noise.
13 There is a correlation of moderate size between poor auditory processing and behavioral/ interpersonal problems (most likely related to poor pragmatics). Guidance counseling may be beneficial (especially in group setting).

Visual Processing

1 The research on the relationship between visual processing and reading achievement is not conclusive (as is the literature on auditory processing). Three factors usually emerge in the research: a reading factor, a visual-cognitive factor which includes skills requiring more cognitive involvement, and a visual differentiation factor, which includes skills that are more automatic.
2 In general, recommendations for visual processing include activities that increase awareness of spatial relationships and require visual thinking.
3 Provide practice with object assembly, construction of patterns, tracing, copying and drawing geometric patterns (all with constant feedback during and after the task). This type of remedial intervention is most effective during elementary years and much less effective after fifth grade.
4 These students make errors on tasks involving reading diagrams, charts, and maps. Provide an assistant to help with this type of visual-data interpretation. Try to verbalize (summarize concepts using oral language) this information as much as possible. Provide the student with practice in the areas (ass this to normal homework schedule).
5 Provide more time for writing, math, and science assignments.
6 Reduce the number of problems on handouts (homework sheets) or provide a card for the student to use to cover extraneous information on the page.
7 Encourage (at home) the student to participate in activities that have elements of visual problem solving and manual manipulation, such as chess, checkers, guitar or piano, and puzzles. Don’t expect high mastery of such activities (accept what ever level of proficiency the student achieves.)
8 Try to grade on content and final accuracy rather than errors made in copying, spelling, or creative writing along the way. Use a high-lighter (yellow) and mark the most important of these mistakes and have the student edit the work. This is important behavior modification.
9 In extreme cases, allow use of technology (computer, word processor, talking dictionary and calculator) when possible; this will reduce the opportunity for visual processing errors and allow for easier correction.

Short-Term Memory

1 Make sure teachers understand the importance of STM as a mediator in the chain of information processing. If STM is poor, this will act as an inhibitor in the application of reasoning, auditory and visual processing, and comprehension abilities.
2 Students with poor STM usually do not enjoy activities and attests that require listening.
3 Ensure that teachers understand poor STM will affect skill acquisition in many skill areas.
4 A hereditary component may exist in STM (stronger than other Gf-Gc areas) that may not be pliable beyond a certain point.
5 Deficits in STM in childhood are more likely to persist into adulthood than deficits in other Gf-Gc areas.
6 When giving instruction to the student, use brief simple sentences that are sequenced in the order of the tasks.
7 Repeat directions to this student making certain they are paying attention.
8 Write specific directions and assignments on the chalkboard for the student to copy. Provide the student with a copy of the notes of a student who is particularly good note- taker. This will allow the student to give his/her complete attention to the speaker.
9 Provide practice for the student in retelling events and stories (auditory), or a group of objects/pictures shown for five (5) seconds and then hidden from sight (visual). STM is a Gf-Gc ability that can be improved with such practice. In this manner, the student must come to learn that they have some responsibility in developing their own attending and memory skills.
10 Have a responsible peer assist with recording assignments for the student. Have the teacher take the responsibility to check an assignment notebook. In some cases, a parent or teacher will need to monitor the recording and completion of assignments (homeschool communication chart).
11 Seat the student in the front row of the classroom or a close to the teacher as possible to reduce distractions and increase his/her ability to attend to oral directions.
12 Students with poor STM must learn how to request and feel comfortable about requesting additional help or repetition of information they don’t understand.
13 Do not forget that there are moderate to strong correlations between deficits in STM and language disorders. Refer for additional testing by the speech pathologist if STM tests particularly low.

Processing Speed

1 Place the emphasis in evaluation on accuracy rather than speed. Because the student has difficulty performing tasks rapidly under pressure, provide him/her with ample time to complete work or shorten the assignments (especially in math operations) so they can be accomplished within the allotted time.
2 Seat the student in the front row near the chalkboard for all copying activities.
3 Recommend visual tracking exercises or computer games that require rapid visual scanning.
4 Provide access to computer programs that target reading speed (Speed Reader). Do the same for math operations (Math Blaster).
5 When copying is necessary, do not require speech or accuracy.
6 Do not require the student to copy problems from his/her math or other textbooks. Instead, provide him/her with clear worksheets that contain only a few problems and plenty of white space.

Comprehension-Knowledge

1 Consult a speech/language pathologist for recommendations on oral language development and effective teacher approaches for the student.
2 Educate the student’s teacher(s) as to the nature of the student’s vocabulary deficit and how it will affect academic, social, and general classroom functioning. The student with low Gc is going to struggle in many different subject areas. There is no quick fix to this problem. If the low Gc score is due to a language disorder, it may take several years to correct. If the low Gc is indicative of lower ability/aptitude, this will be a chronic drag on skill acquisition. Lower standards may need to be applied if the Gc score is consistent with other Gf-Gc abilities (all within borderline-slow learner range). Provide an expectancy chart to the teacher showing prediction of achievement to the overall measure of “g”.
3 Paraphrase information to the student using simplified language.
4 These students must develop better receptive and expressive vocabulary skills. Choose someone to work on it and see that it gets done. The regular education teacher can provide a structured-sequence reading vocabulary program. This should be continued grade to grade. Ask them to tell you the name of this program and ask to see the actual vocabulary development worksheets.
5 Remember that memory problems may interfere with vocabulary assignments.
6 Provide redundancy and repetition in teaching new concepts. Repeat important statements verbatim and explain the concept in a variety of ways.
7 When lecturing, present ideas in an organized and logical sequence. Keep the points as simple as possible and group related information. In the most extreme cases (severe language disorders), do not pair the student with a teacher who is hyper-verbal. 8 Remember that Gc (comprehension-knowledge) is highly influenced by cultural, environmental, and educational opportunities. At the same time, remember that Gc is single best predictor of performance in language arts. It is not appropriate to expect academic achievement beyond current levels of Gc and Gf. Work on these abilities concurrently with basic academic skills.

Fluid Reasoning

1 Research indicates that one of the most difficult areas for students with learning problems is that of abstract reasoning and mathematics. Gf abilities are those most often described in the literature as representing “g”.
2 Encourage the use of manipulative to develop concepts.
3 Attempt to teach concepts in a concrete manner. Use concrete cues in all directions, telling the student exactly what to do at each step.
4 Require a considerable amount of over learning.
5 At the secondary level, help the student select courses that emphasize practical and experiential learning and do not require a high level of abstract reasoning.
6 Provide the student with a list of procedures to follow when working with tasks that involve problem solving.
7 Do not introduce abstract concepts until you are sure the student has mastered the prerequisite skills.
8 Even when the final solutions or answers are incorrect, provide the student with encouragement and praise for persistence in problem solving and attempts to discover a solution.
9 Remember that Gf abilities are ones that are most difficult to remediate beyond the student’s natural course of development. Most intervention activities designed to stimulate these abilities do not generalize to new tasks.

Quantitative Reasoning

1 Do not fail to consider quantitative ability as a cognitive factor. This is going to be confusing to teachers and parents. It is confusing to most psychologists.
2. Provide time for drill, drill, drill. Do not move on to new concepts until the student is at a 95% mastery level. Send practice problems home daily (but not too many and only on those skills at least at 80% mastery level).
3 Enforce working on memorization of basic math facts (adding and subtracting). This is best supplemented by parents. Tell them you expect them to work on these; accept no excuses.
4 If multiplication and division mastery is slow, place easy access charts on the student’s desk for quick reference.
5 Beginning at grade 4, encourage the student to use a calculator for all problem-solving activities. Hold off on use of the calculator for basic operations until 6th grade.
6 Be sure to check our processing speed. If this is weak as well, reduce work load or provide more time to finish the assignment.
7 Use concrete objects and manipulatives to teach all new concepts and to extend previously presented concepts.
8 Encourage parents and student to consider basic math classes in high school. The quantitative score on college entrance exams may be considerably lower than verbal.
9 Remediation in math is most effective with basic operations and less so with problem solving involving high level abstract-conceptual ideas (chemistry, physics, calculus, statistics, algebra). Understand that improvement in problem solving will be slow and at times, frustrating to both teacher and student.

Educational Implications Based on WJ-R Cognitive Tests

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)

� relationship to basic reading skills, i.e. sound/symbol association – word recognition (also to basic writing skills, spelling)
� also to accurate “word” or “information” finding – the “I know it but can’t think of it” phenomena
� mathematics: recall/utilization of basic facts for efficient calculation

Methodologies:

� neurological impress for learning sight vocabulary
� multisensory exercises for development of reading skills
� lang-aud rehearsal reading
� semantic webbing of new concepts
� number fact “families” for math
� resource sheets (for process/or procedures such as math)
� poor readers being taught by phonics do poorly
� attention-concentration distractibility level interference
� low frustration level interference
� persistence in problem solving pays off
� perceptual analysis and synthesis
� strategies for storing information
� studies thoroughly for an exam or quiz but has difficulty retrieving precise answers on the exam or quiz
� has difficulty on math calculation tests which are timed, but is noticeably more successful on untimed tests
� may tend to use general descriptors/words in written language such as “those,” “them,” “something”
� socially does not quickly, at ease retrieve a person’s name, must make some association which is not automatic
� needs much practice and repetition (over learning) for associative learning (e.g. ABCs) to become more automatic
� may need help with cognitive learning strategies
� difficulty recalling math facts
� difficulty answering question in class regarding earlier presented material
� difficulty answering comprehension questions relating to detail and sequence of events
� inconsistent performance (A’s and F’s)
� difficulty completing work started later in day covering material presented earlier
� student falsely accused of “not being motivated”
� difficulty blending sounds in reading process and “holding” sounds to recognize the word
� difficulty answering questions related to currently presented material
� “absent minded”?

Problems:

� listen and follow directions
� reading with whole word approach

Recommend:

� require more teach and reteach
� need to be taught learning strategies
� word retrieval problems – language problems
� aphasic
� cultural
� difficulty with symbolic learning – math symbols, alphabetic symbols
� fluency in reading/writing may be weak
� may have difficulty with concept formation or just label learning for concepts
� may demonstrate word retrieval problems
� may have difficulty with expressive language tasks
� strong or weak retrieval of stored information
� VA – AV differentiation
� teach a strategy of thinking of related bits of information
� teach a strategy of learning by capitalizing on the associations – teacher should point out or help student discover associations
� problems with incidental learning unless tried to context or experience
� problem getting information in to Gc knowledge base
� stress other systems for compensation
� word finding problems?
� long-term retention of learned material – inability to retrieve that information over time
� may need accommodations or compensatory strategies within their learning program, i.e. rehearsal strategies, association building if Glr is poor
� if Glr is good, one might utilize to compensate for other deficits
� filter out word-finding difficulties
� not able to retrieve content for tests
� not able to organize directions to perform tasks
� teach visualization techniques
� teach meta cognitive strategies and task analysis
� teach paraphrasing and listening skills
� can’t follow simple directions
� can’t gate out competing stimuli
� may need to have compensatory strategies for retrieval
� may be diagnostically significant in diagnosis of hyperactivity
� may need to change instructional approach from auditory-visual to some other input and output approaches
� implications for ability to self-correct
� low Glr – long processing time (poor classroom test performance)
� difficulty making associations for particularly language-related learning (reading, spelling)
� Usually associates with expressive language disorders like word finding difficulties
� need more verbal/visual rehearsal to effectively retrieve
� ex: doing fractions after not working with them for a year – succeeding in programs which use a “spiral approach” rather than “mastery learning” approach

Short-Term Memory (Gsm)

� most obviously relating to language acquisition
� basic reading skills such as phonics/decoding
� spelling
� listening comprehension to the extent that details or information cannot be compensated for through Gc – for example when needing to listen to novel (i.e. content specific) information which is unfamiliar to the listener in terms of prior knowledge
� math – learning new sequential processes

Methodologies:

� Gc strategies to enhance associational learning
� “chunking” or limiting quantity
� mnemonics – prompts or visual link-ups for associations/retention
� be sure eye contact is present before presenting information
� use auditory or visual clues/cues to get attention before presenting information
� low on Gsm – were they better at sentences than words? – if yes, then present information in context rather that as separate units of information – e.g. math facts or vowel sounds would be learned more easily if presented in context rather than as separate, unassociated facts
� difficulty on traditional spelling test, not able to remember due to amount of information. Need to cue to specific term
� must be able to maintain attention to a sustained/adequate amount of time
� require the student repeat the information given, rehearse/model until the student gets it
� use visual cues and imagery associated with the oral language
� develop rehearsal strategies
� teach them learning strategies (rehearsal, etc)
� give short, concise, simple, oral directions
� augment oral presentations with visual aids and demonstrations
� ask student to rephrase oral directions - to check to see of they understood it
� kids may show problems with following verbal directions
� may have difficulty with all aspects of learning since information may not be held long enough to be placed in long-term memory
� may benefit from attentional cues to focus attention
� chunking strategies
� rehearsing
� note taking
� can’t hold to store content-need for visual to stabilize auditory memory
� auditory problems related to language
� meaningful data-contextual/experiential
� depending on subtest weaknesses choose information/teaching techniques that are more contextual – rely on meaning
� consider needs for strategies
� try to assess background information to see if emotional-social can impact
� weakness: may affect long-term retrieval processing, storage, retention of learning material
� may need accommodations and compensatory strategies (see Glr)
� not able to follow instructions
� teach listening skills
� use multi-sensory approach
� visual stimulus with oral directions
� teach note-taking skills
� can’t remember auditorially presented materials
� may have implications for speech/language therapist in terms of receptive language skills
� has difficulty in encoding information
� implications for instructional presentation of length of language-related materials
� implications for vocabulary development and its relationship to language comprehension
� implications for teaching a rehearsal/chunking/visualization strategy for improvement of Gsm
� use small bits at a time and then build
� use of a tape recorded in class (older students) to catch all information – effective note taking
� I see attentional problems as obvious classroom signs of this so for some more structured presentation and practice are helpful
� student will need lots of repetition for new information
� teacher will need to insure student is attending – may need to use multisensory methods

Processing Speed (Gs)

� automaticity/fluency in reading (and rare) accuracy>frustration and shut-down for tasks
� writing production and fluency of written language
� math calculation/percept accuracy with details

Methodologies:

� time flexibility and allowances (i.e. waivers for standardized tests like SAT’s)
� additional prompts for information details and focus of attention to salient
points/issues
� scanning and searching speed inhibited greatly by distractibility – ADD kids have great difficulty with this – may just give up

Remediation

� cut number of stimuli presented at once; allow more time for task completion; cut tasks down to smaller units use something (paper) to mask stimuli not involved in immediate task
� teach relaxation techniques
� teach 5-step problem solving strategies (Miechenbaum)
� kids who don’t turn in their homework or schoolwork often low in processing speed and writing fluency with significantly higher writing samples and Gc
� very sensitive to quantity of visual/graphic information, need to reduce quantity or increase allowed time (i.e. copy, fluency in reading)
� difficulty in rapid recognition of visual/graphic similarities/differences (shapes, numbers, forms)
� may have trouble doing academic tasks that require sustained attention
� may need time limits removed from work
� don’t pressure to do “quickly”
� may need to explain/present things at a more deliberate pace
� difficulty completing timed tasks
� error analysis: accuracy, speed, scanning, organization
� weakness: slow performance in achievement areas
� remediation: compensatory strategies, special learning materials
� strength would enhance fluency in decoding tasks (reading and math – freeing cognitive resources for higher order comprehension and problem solving
� may need additional time to perform tasks
� slow work
� completion
� added time to complete tasks
� ADHD responsiveness to _____________ therapy
� motor skill problems – use of computer
� may be intolerant
� may be behavioral problem
� may be cultural, personality
� direct questions to the student
� avoid timed tasks
� cut assignments down
� implications for attention to detail
� implications for motivation
� implications for learning style, i.e. rote versus higher cognitive
� implications for visual learning skills
� problems in working under time constraints
� attentional problems associated often translates to work production time problems in the classroom
� by-passing – allow more time to finish, limit number of items on an assignment
� may be quickly frustrated if they process slowly and more information is piled on and on. Can have behavioral implications
� teacher may need to limit amount of work assigned
� work with student to improve speed – time tests based on how many problems they complete within a time period – work to increase these

Auditory Processing (Ga)

� poor performance argues against phonics instruction for reading – use a visual approach like whole word or an integrated approach using multi-model methods
� ability to process unfamiliar words during a lecture, words not previously learned
� problems on tasks which require rapid recognition of sounds
� difficulty with phonetic reading activities
� difficulty with beginning spelling skills development
� methodologies to be chosen need to incorporate knowledge of the other factors (Glr, Gs, Gc) that relate to these same skills – not enough room here to elaborate – phonetic methods are so well documented (ad nauseum)
� obviously related to phonetic reading and spelling skills
� listening comprehension/language and vocabulary acquisition
� ability to work with settings with competing noises (selective listening discrimination and attention)
� closely related to development early reading
� may indicate to teach or not to teach phonetically
� problems would show in spelling and writing
� reading fluency – and therefore reading comprehension may be affected
� ESL? Difficulties
� hearing acuity – check ears
� listening skills
� check oral language development
� ear infections?
� deficit in word attack skills
� implications for identifying alternative learning channels other than auditory
� particularly if language comprehension is good tend to have a hard time learning by an auditorally-based (phonics only) method – they don’t discriminate sounds well
� use of a mix of methods heavy on tactile/visual presentation with the auditory stimulus helps shore up the weakness, while using a (suppose) strength in visual; use a whole language approach in addition to address the comprehension
� insure student is attending to instructions
� have student repeat instructions back
� keep auditory distraction to a minimum
� increase use phonics approach for reading and writing (strong)
� decrease use language experience approach

Visual Processing (Gv)

� look at Gv/Ga comparison – see where strong modality is – use strengths to plan instruction – strong visual skills: have child employ visual strategies to recall information, visual associations, whole word reading instruction, outlining words, sports
� does not rapidly/fluently cope with large quantities of visual/graphic information – slow readers
� difficulty on rapid sound/symbol processing – matchings
� difficulty on copying tasks
� may not rapidly recognize “whole” words
� may have trouble with math (visualizing number lines, etc)
� augment demonstrations of visual presentations with verbal/oral explanation
� teach kids to “talk through” when working on visual tasks
� content specific issues (i.e. reading graphs/maps or in geometry)
� picture recognition with relationship to Glr might infer some strategies and relationship to acquisition of sight vocabulary and spelling
� eyes checked for acuity
� use a visual cue for a child with strength
� teach to strength
� provide concrete representations so visualizing is not necessary initially – then move to that
� ex: use manipulatives – for math concept development – move to visualizing without the manipulatives
� visual strengths: use charts, diagrams to illustrate relationships in problem solving, or reading – to assist in more concrete organization, less auditory if that’s a problem
� helpful in analyzing visual imagery skills
� may be related to higher cognitive abilities related to visual processing
� could help to focus on career direction science versus humanities, academic versus art

Comprehension/Knowledge (Gc)

� limited word knowledge affecting all aspects of comprehension
� word choice in written language limited
� problems here should be referred perhaps to a speech/language pathologist for more definitive identification of problem
� indicator for higher education success despite decrease in mathematics or reading achievement can store data – needs compensatory strategies or accommodations
� kids have trouble comprehending much of what they read (don’t have background information)
� need “horizon expansion” activities (read to them, field trips to zoo, etc)
� possibly could use language experience approach to reading
� can see a pervasive impact across all academic areas

Methodologies

� experiential enhancement
� webbing/mapping (directly) of new concepts to old
� “whole language” programs often play into this ability
� low scores – enrichment activities especially involving rich use of language – exploratory learning strongly linked with language input/output
� predictor of achievement
� knowledge base facilitates comprehension reading and oral lectures
� comprehension problems may be lack of Gc rather than “comprehension” problem per se
� weakness: language impairment, environmental deprivation
� good to identify ESL’s progress
� read more
� field trips, TV, films, videos
� language problems – instruction needs to be more visual or manipulative
� develop associations between words/phrases and pictorial/situational meaning
� vocabulary development
� use of general descriptors in general communication skills due to limited vocabulary
� lack of interest/motivation academically especially for older students
� foundation of knowledge from which further learning is based
� relevant to identification of vocabulary problems
� useful in identifying receptive and expressive language problems
� useful in identifying language comprehension problems
� may be sensitive to cultural experiences and cultural differences in language reception and expression

Fluid Reasoning (Gf)

� predictor of problems with algebra or math problems
� may do well in statistics – geometry, etc.
� good for career lawyer, etc. (reasoning)
� creative writing?
� kids have trouble with abstract/conceptual thinking, learning
� need more direct instruction (can’t learn rules, etc. on their own)
� will have trouble with math and every rule-bound systems of reading
� need more concrete approaches to learning (e.g. using objects, meaningful material, etc.)
� establishing a curriculum that probes and enhances connective reasoning and strategies as opposed to rote drill activities – for example – use of manipulatives or concrete instances to illustrate abstract concepts. Actual methods are as varied as the subject area and age/grade of subject
� application skills (reading comprehension, math reasoning and cognitive calculation skills – fractions, place value)
� written language tasks for novel assignments (i.e. comparative essays)
� can be taught – problem solving strategies; may have to be shaped with concrete manipulatives
� will have difficulty with transfer and generalization of learning
� may do better with rote learning tasks
� good to identify ESL’s ability
� task-analyze information
� verbalize problem solving
� teach review, drill to mastery
� for weaker students – use high interest, low vocabulary materials
� not fast on his/her feet when required to cope with situation not common or everyday experiences
� creative writing and new and unique applications of learning information/vocabulary
� communication skills may be heavily reliance on concrete descriptions
� need to develop applicative strategies for mathematics concepts
� useful in identifying a student’s ability to correct after feedback
� ability to use reasoning skills in a new learning situation
� useful in identifying a nonverbal learning problem
� useful in identifying learning efficiency in a task requiring higher-order cognitive abilities

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